The history of religion refers to the written record of human religious experiences
and ideas. This period of religious
history begins
with the invention of writing about 5,200 years ago (3200 BCE). The prehistory
of religion relates to a study of religious beliefs
that existed prior to the advent of written records....read
more>>
In religion, a prophet is an individual who has claimed to have been contacted by the supernatural or the divine, and to speak for them, serving as an intermediary with humanity, delivering this newfound ...
In religion, a prophet is an individual who has claimed to have been contacted by the supernatural or the divine, and to speak for them, serving as an intermediary with humanity, delivering this newfound ...
Mass is the most important act of worship in
several Christian churches. These worshippers are Roman Catholics.
A Buddhist prays in a
temple in South Korea. The centre statue represents Siddhartha Gautama,
Buddhism s chief teacher.
African San go into a
trance while dancing near a sacred fire. They believe the fire's heat gives
them the power to heal.
Honouring the saint Gomateswara, followers of
Jainism bathe a huge granite figure with a sacred liquid. Jain pilgrims travel
to Mysore, India, for the ceremony every 12 years.
Salvation from eternal punishment is the goal of many religions. This painting represents the Christian belief in the Last judgment, when every person will either be granted happiness in heaven, top, or be condemned to suffering in hell.
Hindus bathe in the Ganges River to purify their bodies. Millions of Hindus make periodic pilgrimages to their holy city of Varanasi, India, to be purified in the sacred river.
Jews celebrate the Passover in memory of the ancient Israelites' escape from Egyptian slavery. The highlight of this annual festival is a ceremonial feast called the Seder.
The ceremony of baptism marks the entrance of a person into Christianity. The Lutheran minister shown above has baptized the baby by placing a small quantity of water on its head.
Prehistoric people performed religious ceremonies to ensure a sufficient food supply. The prehistoric artist who drew this scene may have believed that it would bring success in hunting.
The Ten Commandments contain the basic laws of Judaism and Christianity. In this picture, God gives the commandments to the Jewish leader Moses, who presents them to the Jews.
Buddha preached that people can gain nirvana, or salvation, by freeing themselves from worldly attachments and desires. Buddhism began in India and spread to China and other Asian lands.
Confucius' birthday is a holiday in Taiwan. The men in the temple shown at the left help perform special birthday ceremonies. Followers of Confucius placed the food offerings before the altar.
Taoist deities outnumber those of almost every other religion. They include the Jade Emperor, who rules the earth, and the Empress of Heaven, who rules heaven. The figure at the right is Laozi, an ancient Chinese philosopher who is considered a founder of Taoism.
A Shinto festival attracts thousands of believers to the Meiji shrine in Tokyo. Parents ! visit the shrine with their chilli dren to thank the gods for their children's good health. They also pray for good fortune for their children. The large wooden gate, or arch called a torii, is the symbol of Shinto.
Jesus Christ founded Christianity. Jesus, shown with a halo in this picture, calls two fishermen, Andrew and Peter, to become His followers. These two men were the first of the group that became known as apostles.
A Muslim reads the Quran at a temple in Mecca, the holiest city of Islam. The Islamic religion is based on the teachings of Muhammad, a prophet who preached during the A.D. 600's.
Hindu activists demand the right to build a temple at the claimed birthplace of the god Rama in Ayodhya, Uttar Pradesh, India. Their actions, in 1992, angered Muslims but were supported by devout Hindus.
Religion. No simple definition can describe the numerous religions in the world.
For many people, religion is an organized system of beliefs, ceremonies,
practices, and worship that centre on one supreme God, or the Deity. For many
others, religion involves a number of gods, or deities. Some people have a
religion in which no specific God or gods are worshipped. There are also people
who practise their own religious beliefs in their own personal way, largely
independent of organized religion. But almost all people who follow some form
of religion believe that a divine power created the world and influences their
lives.
People
practise religion for several reasons. Many people throughout the world follow
a religion simply because it is part of the heritage of their culture, tribe,
or family. Religion gives many people a feeling of security because they
believe that a divine power watches over them. These people often ask the power
for help or protection. Numerous people follow a religion because it promises
them salvation and either happiness or the chance to improve themselves in a
life after death. For many people, religion brings a sense of individual fulfilment
and gives meaning to life. In addition, religion provides answers to such
questions as What is the purpose of life? What is the final destiny of a
person? What is the difference between right and wrong? and What are one's
obligations to other people? Finally, many people follow a religion to enjoy a
sense of kinship with their fellow believers.
There
are thousands of religions in the world. The eight major ones are Buddhism,
Christianity, Confucianism, Hinduism, Islam, Judaism, Shinto, and Taoism. Of
these eight religions, Hinduism, Shinto, and Taoism developed over many
centuries. Each of the other religions traditionally bases its faith on the
life or teachings of specific individuals. They are Prince Siddhartha Gautama,
who became known as Gautama Buddha, for Buddhism; Jesus Christ for
Christianity; Confucius for Confucianism; Muhammad for Islam; and Abraham and
Moses for Judaism.
The
religions that trace their history to individuals follow a general pattern of
development. During the individual's lifetime or soon after his death, a
distinctive system of worship ceremonies grew up around his life and
teachings. This system, called a cult, became the basis of the
religion. The heart of the cult is the teachings. In addition to inspiring
worship, the individual represents an ideal way of life that followers try to
imitate.
Religion has been one of the most powerful forces in history. The teachings of religions have shaped the lives of people since prehistoric times. Judaism, Islam, and especially Christianity have been major influences in the formation of Western culture. These three faiths, particularly Islam, have also played a crucial role in the development of Middle Eastern culture. The cultures of Asia have been shaped by Buddhism, Confucianism, Hinduism, Shinto, and Taoism. Most religions have been influenced by older religions.
Religion has been one of the most powerful forces in history. The teachings of religions have shaped the lives of people since prehistoric times. Judaism, Islam, and especially Christianity have been major influences in the formation of Western culture. These three faiths, particularly Islam, have also played a crucial role in the development of Middle Eastern culture. The cultures of Asia have been shaped by Buddhism, Confucianism, Hinduism, Shinto, and Taoism. Most religions have been influenced by older religions.
Religion
has been a supreme source of inspiration in the arts. Some of the most
beautiful buildings in the world are houses of worship. Much of the world's
greatest music is religious. Religious stories have provided countless
subjects for paintings, sculptures, literature, dances, and films.
This
article describes the chief characteristics of religion. It also examines the
origin of religion in prehistoric times. In addition, the article describes
the organization of the world's eight major religions and briefly relates the
history of each. Many separate World Book articles provide
information on topics related to religion. For a list of these articles, see
the Related articles at the end of this article.
Chief characteristics of religion
Most of
the leading religions throughout history have shared characteristics. The chief
characteristics include (1) belief in a deity or in a power beyond the
individual, (2) a doctrine (accepted teaching) of salvation,
(3) a code of conduct, (4) the use of sacred stories, and (5) religious rituals (acts
and ceremonies).
The
essential qualities of a religion are maintained and passed from generation to
generation by sources, called authority, which the followers
accept as sacred. The most important religious authorities are writings known
as scriptures. Scriptures include the Bibles of Christians and
Jews, the Quran of Muslims, and the Vedas of Hindus. Religious authority also
comes from the writings of saints and other holy persons and from decisions by
religious councils and leaders. Unwritten customs and laws known as traditions also
form a basic part of authority.
Belief in a deity. There are three main philosophical views regarding the existence of a
deity. Atheistsbelieve that no deity exists. Theists believe
in a deity or deities. Agnostics say that the existence of a
deity cannot be proved or disproved. Most of the major religions are theistic.
They teach that deities govern or greatly influence the actions of human
beings as well as events in nature. Confucianism is the most important
atheistic religion.
Religions
that acknowledge only one true God are monotheistic. Judaism,
Christianity, and Islam are examples of monotheistic religions. A religion
that has a number of deities is polytheistic. The ancient
Greeks and Romans had polytheistic religions. Each of their many gods and
goddesses had one or more special areas of influence. For example, Aphrodite
was the Greek goddess of love, and Mars was the Roman god of war. Inhenotheistic religions,
the worship of a supreme Deity does not deny the existence and power of other
deities. For example, Hinduism teaches that a world spirit called Brahman is
the supreme power. But Hindus also serve numerous other gods and goddesses.
Many tribes in Africa and the Pacific Islands also worship a supreme power as
well as many other deities.
The
followers of some religions have deities that are or were people or that are
images of people. The ancient Egyptians considered their pharaohs to be living
gods. Before World War II (1939-1945), the Japanese honoured their emperor as
divine. Taoists have deities that look and act like human beings. They also
worship some deities that were human beings and became gods or goddesses after
death.
Many people worship
nature deities—that is, deities that dwell in nature or control various aspects
of nature.
The Chinese in
particular have worshipped gods of the soil and grain. Followers of Shinto worship kami, spirits that live in nature. Many American Indian
tribes worshipped a spirit power,
a mysterious, magic force in nature.
A doctrine of salvation. Among the major religions, Christianity, Islam,
Buddhism, and Hinduism teach a doctrine of salvation. They stress that
salvation is the highest goal of the faithful and one that all followers should
try to achieve. Religions differ, however, in what salvation is and in how it
can be gained.
A doctrine of salvation is based on the
belief that individuals are in some danger from which they must be saved. The
danger may be the threat of physical misfortune in this world, such as a
disease. Christianity and several other major religions teach that the danger
is spiritual and is centred in each person's soul. The danger to the soul
pertains mainly to life after death. If a person is saved, the soul enters a
state of eternal happiness, often called heaven. If the person is not saved,
the soul may spend eternity in a state of punishment, which is often called
hell.
Most religions teach that a person gains
salvation by finding release from certain obstacles that block human
fulfilment. In Christianity, the obstacles are sin and its effects. In most
Asian religions, the obstacles are worldly desires and attachment to worldly
things. Salvation in these religions depends on whether
believers can free themselves from the
obstacles with the aid of a saviour. The saviour may be the individual on whose
teachings the religion is based, a god, or some other divine figure. People must
accept the saviour. They must also accept certain teachings, perform certain
ceremonies, and abide by certain rules of moral conduct-all of which j were
inspired by the saviour.
Some religions consider salvation to be a
gift from 1 the Deity or deities. For example, many Christian denominations
believe that individuals are saved by the grace of God and not by
their own merit.
Most religions teach that salvation comes
only once and is eternal. According to Buddhism and Hinduism, the soul lives on
after the death of the body and is reborn in another body. This cycle of
rebirths is called reincarnation.
The doctrine of karma is closely related to reincarnation. According to
this doctrine, a person's actions, thoughts, and words determine the kind of
animal or human body the soul will live in during the next reincarnation. The
process of reincarnation continues until, through good deeds and moral conduct,
a person finally achieves a state of spiritual perfection, which is salvation.
Buddhists call this state nirvana, and Hindus call it moksha.
A code of conduct is a set of moral teachings and values that all
religions have in some form. Such a code, or ethic, tells believers how to conduct their lives. It instructs
them how to act toward the deity and toward one another. Religious codes of
conduct differ in many ways, but most agree on several major themes. For example,
they stress some form of the golden rule,
which states that believers should treat others as they would like to be
treated themselves. A religion's code of conduct also may determine such
matters as whom believers may marry, what jobs they may hold, and what kinds
of foods they may eat.
The use of sacred stories. For thousands of years, followers of religions have
believed in sacred stories, called myths. Religious leaders
often used these stories to dramatize the teachings of their faith.
Originally, people told myths to describe
how the sacred powers directly influenced the world. As the stories
developed, they showed how some feature or event in the world was indirectly
caused by the sacred powers. Many stories described the creation of the world.
Others told how the human race or a particular people began. Some of the
stories tried to explain the cause of natural occurrences, such as
thunderstorms or the changes in seasons.
Today, there are scientific explanations
for many of the subjects dealt with in sacred stories. But some religious
groups still insist that the stories are true in every detail. Other groups
believe only in the message contained in the stories, not in the specific
details. Still other religious groups regard sacred stories as symbolic expressions
of the ideals and values of their faith.
Religious rituals include the acts and ceremonies by which believers
appeal to and serve God, deities, or other sacred powers. Some rituals are
performed by individuals alone, and others by groups of worshippers. Important
rituals are performed according to a schedule and are repeated regularly. The
performance of a ritual is often called a service.
The most common ritual is prayer. Through
prayer, a believer or someone on behalf of believers addresses words and
thoughts to an object of worship. Prayer includes requests, expressions of
thanksgiving, confessions of sins, and praise. Most major religions have a
daily schedule of prayer. Meditation, a spiritual exercise much like prayer, is
important in Asian religions. Buddhist monks try to be masters of meditation.
Many religions have rituals intended to
purify the body. For example, Hindus consider the waters of the Ganges River in
India to be sacred. Every year, millions of Hindus purify their bodies by
bathing in the river, especially at the holy city of Varanasi.
In some religions, pilgrimages are significant rituals. Pilgrimages are journeys to
the sites of holy objects or to places credited with miraculous healing powers.
Believers also make pilgrimages to sacred places, such as the birthplace or tomb
of an important member of their faith. All devout Muslims hope to make a
pilgrimage to Mecca, the birthplace of Muhammad.
Many rituals are scheduled at certain
times of the day, week, or year. Various religions have services at sunrise, in
the morning, at sunset, and in the evening. The different religions have
special services to mark the beginning of a new year. Many religions celebrate
springtime, harvest time, and the new or full moon.
Many rituals commemorate events in the
history of religions. For example, the Jewish festival of Passover recalls the
meal that the Israelites ate just before their departure from slavery in
Egypt. Various Christian celebrations of Holy Communion are related to the
last meal that Jesus shared with His disciples before His death.
Rituals also mark important events in a
person's life. Various religious ceremonies make sacred occasions of birth,
marriage, and death. Rituals serve to accept young people into the religion and
into religious societies. In Judaism, the ritual of circumcision is performed
on male infants. Some Christians baptize babies soon after birth. Other
Christians baptize only youths or adults.
How the major religions are organized
The organization of the world's major
religions ranges from simple to complex. Many religions have spiritual leaders,
often called the clergy. These leaders have the authority and responsibility
to conduct religious services, to advise or command believers, and to govern
the religious organization at various levels. In some religions, the laity— that is, the believers who are not members of the
clergy—also have important organizational roles.
In many countries, there is a state (official or favoured) religion. For example, Islam
is the state religion of Iran. Lutheranism is the state religion of Sweden, and
Buddhism is the state religion of Thailand.
Judaism has no one person as its head.
Each local congregation supervises its own affairs, usually under the
leadership of a rabbi. Israel and a few other countries have chief rabbis.
These rabbis are scholars who serve as the top judges of religious law.
Christian denominations (groups) are organized in various ways. In the Roman
Catholic Church, believers are organized into districts called parishes, which belong to larger districts called dioceses. Dioceses, in turn, belong to provinces. The main diocese in each province is called an archdiocese. Pastors preside over parishes, bishops over dioceses,
and archbishops over archdioceses. The pope presides over the entire Roman
Catholic Church with the advice and assistance of high
officials called cardinals. Some Protestant denominations are governed by
similar patterns of hierarchies (levels
of authority). Other denominations are governed by boards of the clergy and
laity or by local congregations.
Confucianism and Islam have no clergy.
Leadership provided by scholars who interpret the teachings of the faith. In
Shinto and Taoism, the basic organizational
is the priesthood. In Buddhism, the chief
organizational unit is an order of monks called the sangha. The monks; serve as advisers and teachers and play a
vital part in everyday life in Buddhist countries. In some Buddhist I
countries, the head of state is also the leader of the national order of monks.
Hinduism has no consistent pattern of
organization. There are no congregations or parishes. Hindus tend to worship
individually or in families. Services in temples are performed by the Brahmans,
the highest Hindu caste (social class). In some areas, the
Brahmans occasionally serve as a kind of royal priesthood.
The origin of religion
The earliest recorded evidence of
religious activity dates from only about 60,000 B.C. However, anthropologists
and historians of religion believe that some form of religion has been
practised since people first appeared on the earth about 2 million years ago.
Experts think prehistoric religions arose
out of fear and wonder about natural events, such as the occurrence of storms
and earthquakes and the birth of babies and
animals. To explain why someone died, people credited supernatural powers
greater than themselves or greater than the world around them.
Prehistoric people centred their religious
activities on the most important elements of their existence, such as the
prosperity of their tribe and getting enough food to survive. They often placed
food, ornaments, and tools in graves. They believed that these items would be
useful to or desired by dead people. Prehistoric people drew pictures and
performed dances that were intended to promote the fertility of women and
animals and to ensure good hunting. They also made sacrifices for the same
reasons.
Certain scholars have developed theories
on how religion began in prehistoric times. No one theory has been accepted by
all scholars, but each major theory has contributed to an understanding of the
subject. Leading theories were developed by Sir Edward Burnett Tylor, Friedrich
Max Muller, and Rudolf Otto.
Tylor's theory. Tylor was a British anthropologist of the 1800's.
According to Tylor's theory, early people believed that spirits dwelled in and
controlled all things in nature. For example, they thought that spirits lived
in such objects or forces as plants, the wind, volcanoes, and the sun. Tylor
called the spirits animae, and his theory
became known as animism.
Prehistoric people, Tylor said, explained
such occurrences as windstorms and the change from day to night as the actions
of the spirits. Because many of the objects and forces were impressive or very
powerful, people started to worship their spirits. According to Tylor, religion
originated in this worship.
Mullers theory. Muller, a German-born language scholar of the 1800's,
is often considered the first historian of religion. Muller agreed with Tylor
that religion began as spirit worship. But he rejected Tylor's view that the
earliest people believed spirits dwelled in nature. Instead, Muller suggested
that prehistoric people thought that the forces of nature themselves had human
qualities, such as good or bad temper. People thus transformed these forces
into deities. In this way, Muller explained the earliest belief in gods.
Otto's theory. Otto was a German scholar of religion of the early
190ffs. Otto believed that an awareness of holiness and mystery lies at the
heart of religious experience and is therefore the basis for all religions. In
his view, all human beings possess the capacity for awe and recognize the power
of the sacred. For Otto, the holy is the true, the good, and the beautiful, a
representation of a basic and universal aspect of being human.
History of the world's major religions
The eight major religions practised in the
world today were either founded or developed their basic form between about
600 B.C. and A.D. 600. The following discussion traces the history of each of
these religions.
Judaism began among the ancient Israelites in the Middle East,
Jewish tradition traces the roots of the religion back to Abraham, who lived
between about 1800 and 1500 B.C His grandson Jacob, who was also called Israel,
had 12 sons. They founded the 12 tribes that became the Israelites. Over a
period of time, many Israelites settled in Egypt, where they eventually became
slaves. During the 1200s B.C., the great lawgiver Moses led them out of Egypt
to Canaan (Palestine). Jewish tradition also says that Moses received from God
the first five books of the Bible, which are called the Pentateuch or the
Torah. These books, sometimes known as the Mosaic Law, have been the basis of
the Jewish religion.
Judaism was the first religion to teach
the belief in one God. Some scholars say that the Jews became monotheistic
during the time of Moses. But most scholars believe that Jewish prophets (religious teachers and thinkers) converted the Jews
to monotheism by about 600 B.C.
During Biblical times, first the
Assyrians, then the Babylonians, and finally the Romans conquered the Israelites.
Many Jews were driven into exile. Over the centuries, the Jewish people
settled in various parts of the Middle East and in European countries.
Everywhere, they were always a religious minority, and they were often
persecuted for their faith.
After about 1800, Jews divided into three
general groups—Orthodox, Conservative, and Reform. Orthodox Jews observed
rituals in traditional ways. Conservative and Reform Jews modernized certain
practices. Most eastern European Jews followed Orthodox Judaism, and most
western European and North American Jews followed Conservative or Reform
Judaism.
In the 1930's, the German dictator Adolf
Hitler and his Nazi Party began a vicious campaign against Jews. By 1945, the
Nazis had killed about 6 million of the 8 million to 9 million Jews in Europe.
Many of the survivors joined Jews living in Palestine. Together, they
established the state of Israel in 1948 under the sponsorship of the United
Nations (UN). It was the first homeland Jews had known since Biblical times.
Hinduism began about 1500 B.C At that time, a central Asian
people called the Aryans invaded and conquered India. The Aryan culture
gradually combined with the culture of a native people known as the Dravidians.
Hinduism developed from a blend of the two cultures.
The oldest Hindu scriptures are the Vedas.
They were composed over a period of 1,000 years, beginning about 1000 B.C. This
stage in Hindu history is often called the Vedic period. During Vedic times,
believers worshipped a number of nature deities. At the end of the period, the
doctrines of reincarnation and karma were adopted.
By the 500's B.C., Hinduism was splitting
into various schools of thought. Two of these schools—Buddhism and
Jainism—became new religions. The Hindu schools
further split into smaller sects. Today, Hinduism includes a great number of schools
and sects. Many of sects were formed by saints or gurus (spiritual teachers Each sect has its own philosophy
and form of worship. But they all accept basic Hindu doctrines.
Buddhism developed in India
during the late 500's B.C from the teachings of a prince named Siddhartha 1
Gautama. Gautama became known as Gautama Buddha, meaning Enlightened One.
Buddhism was partly a rebel lion against certain features of Hinduism. Buddhism
opposed the Hindu worship of many deities, the Hindu emphasis on caste and the
supernatural, and the power of the Hindu priest class.
Buddha taught that people should devote
themselves to finding release from the suffering of life. Through this release,
people would gain nirvana, a state of perfect
peace and happiness. To achieve nirvana, they had to free themselves from all
worldly desires and attachments to worldly things. Buddha taught that nirvana
could be gained by following the Middle Way
between the extremes of severe self-denial and uncontrolled passion. As Buddha
preached, he attracted a growing number of followers. By the time of his
death, about 483 B.C, Buddhism was firmly established in India.
Buddhism spread into central Asia. By the
end of the A.D. 100's, it had been introduced into China. Buddhism swept
through much of China from the 300's to the 500's, challenging the native
Chinese religions of Confucianism and Taoism in popularity. In the 500's,
Chinese Buddhism spread to Korea and Japan. Buddhism became the chief Japanese
religion for the next 1,000 years.
Early in its history, Buddhism divided
into two forms, Theravada and Mahayana. Today, Theravada Buddhism is strongest
in Burma, Cambodia, Laos, Sri Lanka, and Thailand. Most Mahayana Buddhists live
in Japan, Korea, Mongolia, Nepal, Tibet, Vietnam, and scattered parts of India
and Russia.
Confucianism is a Chinese religion based on the teachings of
Confucius, a philosopher who died about 479 B.C Confucianism has no
organization or clergy. It does not teach a belief in a deity or in the
existence of life after death. Confucianism stresses moral and political
ideas. It emphasizes respect for ancestors and government authority and
teaches that rulers must govern according to high moral standards.
Confucianism, Buddhism, and Taoism have
been the major religions in China. But Confucianism has had the greatest impact
on Chinese society. It was the state religion of China from the 10ffs B.C.
until the A.D. 1900's. Chinese rulers approved of its emphasis on respect for
authority and dedication to public service. Confucian scriptures called the
Five Classics and Four Books served as the foundation of the Chinese
educational system for centuries. Candidates applying for government jobs had
to pass examinations based on these scriptures.
Beginning in the 1000's, a more
philosophical approach to Confucianism known as Neo-Confucianism became widely
popular. Neo-Confucianism also influenced Japanese moral codes and philosophy
from the 160o’s through to the 1800's.
In 1949, the Chinese Communists gained
control of China. The government officially condemned Confucian ism, as well as
other religions. As a result, most followers lived outside mainland China,
especially in Taiwan.
In the late 1970's, however, the Communist
government relaxed its policy against religion, and so Confucianism has enjoyed
a revival on the mainland.
Taoism, like Confucianism, is a native Chinese religion. Its
roots go back to the earliest history of China. However, Taoism did not begin
to develop as an organized religion until the 100's B.C.
Taoism teaches that everyone should try to
achieve two goals, happiness and immortality. The religion has many practices
and ceremonies intended to help people. They include prayer, magic, special
diets, breath control, meditation, and recitation of scriptures. Taoists also
believe in astrology, fortunetelling, witchcraft, and communication with the
spirits of the dead.
Taoists worship more deities than do the
followers of almost any other religion. Some deities are ancestors, and others
are the spirits of famous people.
During its early history, Taoism borrowed
heavily from Buddhism. Many Taoist deities, temples, and ceremonies show the
influence of Buddhism. By the A.D. 1000's, Taoism had divided into many sects.
The members of some of these sects withdrew from everyday life to meditate and
study in monasteries. Other sects were based in temples. The temple priests
passed their positions on to their children. The members of this hereditary priesthood
lived among the common people. They gained a reputation as highly skilled
magicians who could tell the future and protect believers from illness,
accidents, and other misfortune.
Chinese governments of the early and
mid-1900's opposed Taoism, claiming it was based on superstition. Today, the
Chinese government permits the practice of the religion and followers are
gradually increasing in number. In addition, Taoists remain active in Chinese
societies outside China, especially in Taiwan.
Shinto is the native
religion of japan. According to Shinto mythology, deities created japan and its
people. Until the mid-1900's, the Japanese worshipped their emperor as a
direct descendant of Amaterasu-Omikami, the sun goddess and most important Shinto
deity.
Shinto developed from native folk beliefs.
Followers worship spirits and demons that live in animals and in mountains,
trees, and other parts of nature. In early Japanese history, Shinto was
devoted chiefly to this form of nature worship. Beginning in the A.D. 500's,
Buddhism influenced the development of Shinto. Confucianism became influential
in the A.D. 600's. Both of these religions
helped shape Shinto rituals and doctrines.
Buddhist and Shinto services have occasionally been held in the same temples.
But unlike Buddhism, Shinto never developed strong doctrines on either
salvation or life after death.
During the late 1800's, the
Japanese government sponsored a form of Shinto called State Shinto. State
Shinto stressed patriotic religious ceremonies and the divine origins of the
emperor. In 1882, the government officially separated Shinto into State Shinto
and Sectarian Shinto. The government administered State Shinto. Sectarian
Shinto was popular among the common people. After World War II, the Japanese
government abolished State Shinto and the doctrine that the emperor was divine.
Christianity is based on the life and teachings of Jesus Christ in
Palestine. Most Christians believe that Cod sent Jesus to the world as the
Saviour. Christianity teaches that humanity can achieve salvation through Jesus.
After Jesus' Crucifixion, a number of His
followers spread His teachings. One of the most important of these followers
was Saint Paul. After Paul's death, about A.D. 67, Christianity continued to
grow in spite of persecution by the Romans, whose empire covered most of Europe,
the Middle East, and northern Africa. In the early 300's, the Roman emperor
Constantine the Great became a Christian. By the late 300's, Christianity was
widely practised throughout the empire.
During the Middle Ages, Christian
missionaries converted many European barbarian tribes, which led to the
Christian church's dominant influence on European life for centuries. For many
years, a split had been developing between Christians in western Europe and
those in eastern Europe and western Asia. The split finally occurred in the
1000's. The churches in Greece, Russia, and other parts of eastern Europe and
western Asia became known as the Eastern Orthodox Churches. The church in
western Europe became known as the Roman Catholic Church.
In the 1500's, a religious movement called
the Reformation divided western Christianity into several bodies. Most
southern Europeans remained Roman Catholics. A great number of northern
Europeans, known as Protestants, formed new churches. The largest include the
Baptist Congregationalist, Episcopal, Lutheran, Methodist, and Presbyterian
churches.
Beginning in the 1500's, Catholic
missionaries converted many people in Africa, Asia, and the Americas to
Christianity. Protestant missionaries became active in the 1600's and made
converts in the Far East, Africa, and North America.
Islam is based on the life and teachings of the prophet
Muhammad, who lived in Arabia during the early A.D. 600's. Before Muhammad's
time, the people in the region worshipped Allah (God) as well as other deities.
But Muhammad said Allah was the only God.
According to Islamic tradition, Muhammad
had the first of several visions about 610. The vision occurred while Muhammad
was meditating in a cave on Mount Hira, a hill near his birthplace of Mecca, in
what is now Saudi Arabia. The vision commanded Muhammad to preach the message
of Allah to the people of his country. He began preaching in Mecca. A tribe
called the Quraysh controlled Mecca and opposed Muhammad.
To avoid persecution by the Quraysh,
Muhammad fled to the city of Medina. Muhammad's journey from Mecca to Medina is
called the Hegira and is one of the central events in the founding of
Islam.
In 630, Muhammad led an army to Mecca. He
offered the people of the city generous peace terms. As a result, his forces
were able to take the city with little resistance. Muhammad made Mecca the
sacred city and centre of Islam.
After Muhammad's death in 632, his friend
and disciple Abu Bakr became the first caliph (leader) of Islam. Abu Bakr defeated a rebellion
against his rule by Arabian tribes and began a campaign of religious conquest
outside Arabia. Succeeding caliphs continued Abu Bakr's conquests. Within 100
years of Muhammad's death, Islam had spread throughout the Middle East, across
northern Africa, and into Spain. In 732, Muslim and Christian armies fought a
major battle near Tours, France. The Muslims were defeated, and Western Europe
remained Christian.
Muslim missionaries and traders carried
Islam to India and other parts of Asia. From the 1000's to the 1200's, Islam
spread into western Africa. Today, Islam is the major religion of nearly all
countries in northern Africa and the Middle East. It is also the chief
religion in Bangladesh, Indonesia, Malaysia, and Pakistan.
Religion today
Religion in the West has been severely
criticized in the 1900's. Numerous critics charge that many religious doctrines
have become dry and uninspiring and no longer satisfy spiritual needs. Critics
have also claimed that traditional religions fail to deal with current social
issues and that they support outdated moral attitudes. Some religious groups
have tried to meet society's needs and problems. For example, most religions
have traditionally prohibited the ordination of women as clergy and from other
leadership positions. For many women, these limitations left their spiritual
needs unfulfilled. Many Christian denominations and groups in Judaism now
allow women roles which are equal to those of men. Christians also see the ecumenical movement in Christianity as a positive step toward bringing a
spirit of cooperation and renewal to Western religion (see Protestantism).
Many people throughout the world have,
since the mid-1900"s, turned to a stricter interpretation of their religion.
They look for the fundamental
(basic) principles of their belief and hope to live their lives by such principles.
In Christian denominations, this means accepting every word of the Bible as
divinely inspired. Christian fundamentalists
(strict observers) have had great social and political influence in the United
States. Christian fundamentalist leaders include television evangelists.
Hindu fundamentalists have gained
political importance in India. In 1992, extremists who were responsible for
the destruction of a Muslim mosque built on the remains of a Hindu shrine in
the town of Ayodhya, gained many followers. Their action angered local Muslims.
The meetings of such extremists have
stirred up riots.
Islam and Judaism have also developed
strong fundamentalist movements, both in the West and in the Middle East.
Islamic revivalists (people who seek to reawaken the faith) have
achieved political influence in such countries as Algeria, Egypt, and Iran.
Hasidism is gaining a large number of followers among Jews in Israel and the
United States (see Hasidism).
Some of the strict observers of any
religion are unable to accept the beliefs of others. Many violent confrontations,
even wars, have come about as a result of religious intolerance.
Seeking a more peaceful way of life, some
people in the West have turned to new religions or movements, or to religions
whose origins are in the East. A large number of people have sought fulfilment
in the teachings of Asian religions. Some of these people have been attracted
to Zen, a form of Buddhism that emphasizes meditation.
Some Westerners have turned to other kinds
of supernatural teachings, some to astrology, spiritualism, or paganism.
Astrology is based on the belief that the planets and other heavenly bodies
influence human affairs. Spiritualists believe that it is possible to
communicate with the spirits of the dead. Pagans find inspiration from a range
of ancient religious cults. See the Religion section of the
articles on various countries, such as Canada (Religion) and Israel (Religion).
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